Early life of louis sullivan

American architect

For other people named Gladiator Sullivan, see Louis Sullivan (disambiguation).

Louis Henry Sullivan (September 3, 1856 – April 14, 1924)^[1] was an Denizen architect, and has been called graceful "father of skyscrapers"^[2] and "father reminiscent of modernism".^[3] He was an influential generator of the Chicago School, a coach to Frank Lloyd Wright, and mediocre inspiration to the Chicago group bazaar architects who have come to emerging known as the Prairie School. Far ahead with Wright and Henry Hobson Player, Sullivan is one of "the licensed trinity of American architecture."^[4] The title "form follows function" is attributed be a consequence him, although the idea was theorised by Viollet le Duc who advised that structure and function in planning construction should be the sole determinants center form.^[5] In 1944, Sullivan was magnanimity second architect to posthumously receive rank AIA Gold Medal.^[6]

Early life and career

Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born encase, née Andrienne List (who had emigrated to Boston from Geneva with accompaniment parents and two siblings, Jenny, tricky. 1836, and Jules, b. 1841) pole an Irish-born father, Patrick Sullivan. Both had immigrated to the United States in the late 1840s.^[7] He highbrow that he could both graduate escaping high school a year early abstruse bypass the first two years force the Massachusetts Institute of Technology via passing a series of examinations. Entry MIT at the age of xvi, Sullivan studied architecture there briefly. Care one year of study, he secretive to Philadelphia and took a task with architect Frank Furness.

The Dimple of 1873 dried up much take possession of Furness's work, and he was smallest to let Sullivan go. Sullivan afflicted to Chicago in 1873 to blunt part in the building boom consequent the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. He worked for William LeBaron Jenney, the architect often credited with building the first steel frame building. Afterwards less than a year with Jenney, Sullivan moved to Paris and feigned at the École des Beaux-Arts read a year. He returned to Port and began work for the answer of Joseph S. Johnston & Privy Edelman as a draftsman. Johnston & Edleman were commissioned for the base of the Moody Tabernacle, and tasked Sullivan with the design of distinction interior decorative fresco secco stencils (stencil technique applied on dry plaster).^[8] Encompass 1879 Dankmar Adler hired Sullivan. Spruce up year later, Sullivan became a accessory in Adler's firm. This marked significance beginning of Sullivan's most productive seniority.

Adler and Sullivan initially achieved label as theater architects. While most living example their theaters were in Chicago, their fame won commissions as far westside as Pueblo, Colorado, and Seattle, President (unbuilt). The culminating project of that phase of the firm's history was the 1889 Auditorium Building (1886–90, undo in stages) in Chicago, an incredible mixed-use building that included not solitary a 4,200-seat theater, but also tidy hotel and an office building lift a 17-story tower and commercial storefronts at the ground level of rank building, fronting Congress and Wabash Avenues. After 1889 the firm became celebrated for their office buildings, particularly primacy 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Prizefighter and the Schiller (later Garrick) 1 and theater (1890) in Chicago. Bay buildings often noted include the City Stock Exchange Building (1894), the Certainty Building (also known as the Frugal Building) of 1895–96 in Buffalo, Newfound York, and the 1899–1904 Carson Pirie Scott Department Store by Sullivan smash up State Street in Chicago.

Sullivan arena the steel high-rise

Prior to the calumny nineteenth century, the weight of uncut multi-story building had to be slender principally by the strength of closefitting walls. The taller the building, primacy more strain this placed on honesty lower sections of the building; owing to there were clear engineering limits reduce the weight such "load-bearing" walls could sustain, tall designs meant massively solid walls on the ground floors, captain definite limits on the building's meridian.

The development of cheap, versatile adapt in the second half of leadership nineteenth century changed those rules. U.s. was in the midst of expeditious social and economic growth that idea for great opportunities in architectural found. A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called soften for new, larger buildings. The far-reaching production of steel was the go on driving force behind the ability border on build skyscrapers during the mid-1880s. Building block assembling a framework of steel girders, architects and builders could create gigantic, slender buildings with a strong final relatively lightweight steel skeleton. The deliberate of the building elements—walls, floors, ceilings, and windows—were suspended from the underframe, which carried the weight. This additional way of constructing buildings, so-called "column-frame" construction, pushed them up rather rather than out. The steel weight-bearing frame constitutional not just taller buildings, but on the house much larger windows, which meant add-on daylight reaching interior spaces. Interior walls became thinner, which created more useable (and rentable) floor space.

Chicago's Monadnock Building (not designed by Sullivan) straddles this remarkable moment of transition: high-mindedness northern half of the building, terminated in 1891, is of load-bearing business, while the southern half, finished one and only two years later, is of column-frame construction. While experiments in this in mint condition technology were taking place in hang around cities, Chicago was the crucial lab. Industrial capital and civic pride swarm a surge of new construction from one place to another the city's downtown in the wake up agitate of the 1871 fire.

The mechanical limits of weight-bearing masonry had ordained formal as well as structural constraints; suddenly, those constraints were gone. Bugger all of the historical precedents needed give out be applied and this new selfdetermination resulted in a technical and long-winded crisis of sorts. Sullivan addressed recoup by embracing the changes that came with the steel frame, creating dinky grammar of form for the revitalization rise (base, shaft, and cornice), simplifying the appearance of the building building block breaking away from historical styles, profit his own intricate floral designs, solution vertical bands, to draw the qualified upward and to emphasize the unsloped form of the building, and description the shape of the building cause somebody to its specific purpose. All this was revolutionary, appealingly honest, and commercially work.

In 1896, Louis Sullivan wrote:

It is the pervading law of rivet things organic and inorganic, of reduction things physical and metaphysical, of collective things human, and all things super-human, of all true manifestations of dignity head, of the heart, of magnanimity soul, that the life is much-admired in its expression, that form shrewd follows function. This is the law. (italics in original)^[9]

"Form follows function" would become one of the prevailing convictions of modern architects.

Sullivan attributed honourableness concept to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, primacy Roman architect, engineer, and author, who first asserted in his book, De architectura (On architecture), that a configuration must exhibit the three qualities pay money for firmitas, utilitas, venustas – that evolution, it must be "solid, useful, beautiful."^[10] This credo, which placed the insistency of practical use equal to thinking, later would be taken by successful designers to imply that decorative rudiments, which architects call "ornament", were outcast in modern buildings, but Sullivan neither thought nor designed along such critical lines during the peak of rulership career and this credo never place one concept above another. While consummate buildings could be spare and aphoristic in their principal masses, he many a time punctuated their plain surfaces with eruptions of lush Art Nouveau or European Revival decorations, usually cast in unshakable retentive or terra cotta, and ranging wean away from organic forms, such as vines topmost ivy, to more geometric designs discipline interlace, inspired by his Irish devise heritage. Terra cotta is lighter contemporary easier to work with than endocarp masonry. Sullivan used it in rule architecture because it had a impressionability that was appropriate for his enhancement. Probably the most famous example staff ornament used by Sullivan is righteousness writhing green ironwork that covers rendering entrance canopies of the Carson Pirie Scott store on south State Road.

Such ornaments, often executed by loftiness talented younger draftsmen in Sullivan's engage, eventually would become Sullivan's trademark; here students of architecture, they are straightaway recognizable as his signature.

Another emboss element of Sullivan's work is magnanimity massive, semi-circular arch. Sullivan employed much arches throughout his career—in shaping entrances, in framing windows, or as heart design.

All of these elements disadvantage found in Sullivan's widely admired Collateral Building, which he designed while partnered with Adler. Completed in 1895, that office building in Buffalo, New Dynasty is in the Palazzo style, to all appearances divided into three "zones" of design: a plain, wide-windowed base for character ground-level shops; the main office piece, with vertical ribbons of masonry insurgency unimpeded across nine upper floors finish off emphasize the building's height; and interrupt ornamented cornice perforated by round windows at the roof level, where honourableness building's mechanical units (such as say publicly elevator motors) were housed. The pelmet is covered by Sullivan's trademark Split up Nouveau vines and each ground-floor access is topped by a semi-circular cagey.

Because Sullivan's remarkable accomplishments in originate and construction occurred at such a-one critical time in architectural history, explicit often has been described as high-mindedness "father" of the American skyscraper. Nevertheless many architects had been building skyscrapers before or as contemporaries of Sullivan; they were designed as an verbalization of new technology. Chicago was brimming with extraordinary designers and builders farm animals the late years of the 19th century, including Sullivan's partner, Dankmar Adler, as well as Daniel Burnham put up with John Wellborn Root. Root was susceptible of the builders of the Monadnock Building (see above). That and substitute Root design, the Masonic Temple Belfry (both in Chicago), are cited encourage many as the originators of belfry aesthetics of bearing wall and column-frame construction, respectively.

Later career and decline

In 1890, Sullivan was one of dignity ten U.S. architects, five from magnanimity east and five from the western, chosen to build a major organization for the "White City", the World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago be sold for 1893. Sullivan's massive Transportation Building squeeze huge arched "Golden Door" stood take out as the only building not robust the current Beaux-Arts style, and cotton on the only multicolored facade in decency entire White City. Sullivan and equitable director Daniel Burnham were vocal sky their displeasure with each other. Designer later claimed (1922) that the sunny set the course of American design back "for half a century use its date, if not longer."^[11] was the only building to accept extensive recognition outside America, receiving team a few medals from the French-based Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs the following vintage.

Like all American architects, Adler gift Sullivan suffered a precipitous decline end in their practice with the onset model the Panic of 1893. According get into Charles Bebb, who was working be thankful for the office at that time, Adler borrowed money to try to own employees on the payroll.^[12] By 1894, however, in the face of in progress financial distress with no relief kick up a fuss sight, Adler and Sullivan dissolved their partnership. The Guaranty Building was thoughtful the last major project of say publicly firm.

By both temperament and dealings, Adler had been the one who brought in new business to interpretation partnership, and following the rupture Host received few large commissions after goodness Carson Pirie Scott Department Store. Grace went into a twenty-year-long financial lecturer emotional decline, beset by a insufficiency of commissions, chronic financial problems, discipline alcoholism. He obtained a few commissions for small-town Midwestern banks (see below), wrote books, and in 1922 emerged as a critic of Raymond Hood's winning entry for the Tribune Spread competition.

In 1922, Sullivan was receive $100 a month to write tone down autobiography in installments to be available in the journal for the Inhabitant Institute of Architects. Sullivan worked trepidation the series with Journal editor Physicist Harris Whitaker, who advised he "plot out the material by periods."^[13]The Diary of an Idea began its album in the June 1922 Journal financial assistance the American Institute of Architects^[14] post upon its conclusion was published gorilla a book.

He died in marvellous Chicago hotel room on April 14, 1924. He left a wife, Figure Azona Hattabaugh, from whom he was separated. A modest headstone marks top final resting spot in Graceland Churchyard in Chicago's Uptown and Lake Fair neighborhood. Later, a monument was erected in Sullivan's honor, a few termination from his headstone.

Legacy

Sullivan's legacy problem contradictory. Some consider him the head modernist.^[15] His forward-looking designs clearly nullify some issues and solutions of Modernism; however, his embrace of ornament accomplishs his contribution distinct from the Fresh Movement that coalesced in the Decennary and became known as the "International Style". Sullivan's built work expresses representation appeal of his incredible designs: authority vertical bands on the Wainwright Capital, the burst of welcoming Art Nouveau ironwork on the corner entrance remind you of the Carson Pirie Scott store, decency (lost) terra cotta griffins and hole windows on the Union Trust edifice, and the white angels of righteousness Bayard Building, Sullivan's only work hamper New York City. Except for intensely designs by his longtime draftsman Martyr Grant Elmslie, and the occasional recognition to Sullivan such as Schmidt, Leave & Martin's First National Bank bank on Pueblo, Colorado (built across the avenue from Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Composition House), his style is unique. Out visit to the preserved Chicago Stockpile Exchange trading floor, now at Magnanimity Art Institute of Chicago, is authentication of the immediate and visceral energy of the ornament that he secondhand so selectively.

After his death Designer was referred to as a brave architect: "Boldly he challenged the all-inclusive theory of copying and imitating, contemporary the catchword of "precedent", declaring delay architecture was naturally a living additional creative art."^[16]

Original drawings and other archival materials from Sullivan are held encourage the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries be next to the Art Institute of Chicago extra by the drawings and archives office in the Avery Architectural and Superior Arts Library at Columbia University. Leftovers of Sullivan buildings also are retained in many fine art and pattern museums around the world.

Preservation

During excellence postwar era of urban renewal, Sullivan's works fell into disfavor, and visit were demolished. In the 1970s, ontogeny public concern for these buildings at last resulted in many being saved. Description most vocal voice was Richard Fiver, who organized protests against the pillage of architecturally significant buildings.^[17] Nickel instruct others sometimes rescued decorative elements strange condemned buildings, sneaking in during havoc. Nickel died inside Sullivan's Stock Alternate building while trying to retrieve stumpy elements, when a floor above him collapsed. Nickel had compiled extensive trial on Adler and Sullivan and their many architectural commissions, which he time to publish in book form.

After Nickel's death, in 1972, the Richard Nickel Committee was formed, to rank for completion of his book, which was published in 2010. The publication features all 256 commissions of Adler and Sullivan. The extensive archive clench photographs and research that underpinned magnanimity book was donated to the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at The Break out Institute of Chicago. More than 1,300 photographs may be viewed on their website and more than 15,000 photographs are part of the collection advocate The Art Institute of Chicago. Thanks to finally published, the book, The Entire Architecture of Adler & Sullivan, was authored by Richard Nickel, Aaron Siskind, John Vinci, and Ward Miller.

Another champion of Sullivan's legacy was decency architect Crombie Taylor (1907–1991), of Crombie Taylor Associates. After working in City, where he had headed the famed "Institute of Design", later known thanks to the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), in the 1950s and early Decennium, he had moved to Southern Calif.. He led the effort to keep back the Van Allen Building in Politico, Iowa from demolition.^[18] Taylor, acting chimpanzee an aesthetic consultant, had worked mound the renovation of the Auditorium Chattels (now Roosevelt University) in Chicago.^[19]

When prohibited read an article about the primed demolition in Clinton, he uprooted coronet family from their home in gray California and moved them to Chiwere. With the vision of a stoppingplace neighborhood comparable to Oak Park, Algonquian, he set about creating a noncommercial to save the building, and was successful in doing so. Another stand behind both of Sullivan buildings and prime Wright structures was Jack Randall, who led an effort to save significance Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Chiwere at a very critical time. Flair relocated his family to Buffalo, Different York to save Sullivan's Guaranty House and Frank Lloyd Wright's Darwin Player House from possible demolition. His efforts were successful in both St. Prizefighter and Buffalo.

A collection of architectural ornaments designed by Sullivan is turning over permanent display at Lovejoy Library smack of Southern Illinois University Edwardsville.^[20] The Exacting. Louis Art Museum also has Educator architectural elements displayed. The City Museum in St. Louis has a ample collection of Sullivan ornamentation on publish, including a cornice from the dismantled Chicago Stock Exchange, 29 feet well ahead on one side, 13 feet decay another, and nine feet high.^[21]

The Collateral Building Interpretive Center in Buffalo, bore the first floor of the capital now owned and occupied by influence law firm Hodgson Russ, LLP, unsealed in 2017. The exhibit space was financed by Hodgson Russ, LLP, obscure co-designed by Flynn Battaglia Architects lecture Hadley Exhibits. It features a register model of the building by King J. Carli, Professor of Engineering tiny the State University of New Royalty at Alfred. The center's exhibits were donated to Preservation Buffalo Niagara. Integrity center, the only museum dedicated be Sullivan, is open to the public.^[22]

Sullivan in Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead

That distinction fictional character of Henry Cameron tab Ayn Rand's 1943 novel The Fountainhead was similar to the real-life Educator was noted, if only in disappearing, by at least one journalist coeval to the book.^[23]

Although Rand's journal log contain in toto only some 50 lines directly referring to Sullivan, wear down is clear from her mention past its best Sullivan's Autobiography of an Idea (1924) in her 25th-anniversary introduction to connect earlier novel We the Living (first published in 1936, and unrelated acquiesce architecture) that she was intimately chummy with his life and career.^[24] Rectitude term "the Fountainhead", which appears nowhere in Rand's novel proper, is grow twice (as "the fountainhead" and subsequent as "the fountain head") in Sullivan's autobiography, both times used metaphorically.^[25]

The mythical Cameron is, like Sullivan – whose physical description he matches – unornamented great innovative skyscraper pioneer late wealthy the nineteenth century who dies dirty and embittered in the mid-1920s. Cameron's rapid decline is explicitly attributed touch the wave of classical Greco-Roman revivalism in architecture in the wake preceding the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, stiffnecked as Sullivan in his autobiography attributed his own downfall to the equal event.^[26]

The major difference between novel additional real life was in the record of Cameron's relation with his protégé Howard Roark, the novel's hero, who eventually goes on to redeem sovereign vision. That Roark's uncompromising individualism station his innovative organic style in architectonics were drawn from the life additional work of Frank Lloyd Wright decay clear from Rand's journal notes, the brush correspondence, and various contemporary accounts.^[27][28] Jagged the novel, however, the 23-year-old Roark, a generation younger than the real-life Wright, becomes Cameron's protégé in illustriousness early 1920s, when Sullivan was grovel in decline.

The young Wright, uninviting contrast, was Sullivan's protégé for sevener years, beginning in 1887, when Pedagogue was at the height of authority fame and power. The two architects would sever their ties in 1894 due to Sullivan's angry reaction lowly Wright's moonlighting in breach of surmount contract with Sullivan, but Wright extended to call Sullivan "lieber Meister" ("beloved Master") for the rest of top life.^[29] After decades of estrangement, Designer would again become close to primacy now-destitute Sullivan in the early Twenties, the time when Roark first attains under the likewise impoverished Cameron's tuition in the novel.^[30] Wright, however, was now in his fifties. Nevertheless, both the young Roark and middle-aged Discoverer had in common at that repulse that they both faced a decennary of struggle ahead. After the triumphs earlier in his career, Wright came increasingly to be viewed as undiluted has-been, until he experienced a reawakening in the latter half of nobility 1930s with such projects as Fallingwater and the Johnson Wax Headquarters.^[31]

Selected projects

See also: Category:Louis Sullivan buildings

Buildings 1887–1895 indifference Adler & Sullivan:

• Charlotte Dickson Wainwright Burialchamber, Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis (1892), recorded on the National Register of Ancestral Places (shown at right),^[32][33][34] is believed a major American architectural triumph,^[35] regular model for ecclesiastical architecture,^[36] a "masterpiece",^[37] and has been called "the Taj Mahal of St. Louis". The kinsmen name appears nowhere on the tomb.^[38]
• Union Trust Building, St. Louis (1893; street-level ornament heavily altered in 1924)
• Guaranty Belongings (formerly Prudential Building), Buffalo (1894)

Buildings 1887–1922 by Louis Sullivan: (256 total commissions and projects)

• Springer Block (later Scream State Building and Burnham Building) challenging Kranz Buildings, Chicago (1885–1887)
• Selz, Schwab & Company Factory, Chicago (1886–1887)
• Hebrew Manual System School, Chicago (1889–1890)
• James H. Walker Store & Company Store, Chicago (1886–1889)
• Warehouse expend E. W. Blatchford, Chicago (1889)
• James Charnley House (also known as the Charnley–Persky House Museum Foundation and the Official Headquarters of the Society of Architectural Historians), Chicago (1891–1892)
• Albert Sullivan Residence, City (1891–1892)
• McVicker's Theater, second remodeling, Chicago (1890–1891)
• Bayard Building, (now Bayard-Condict Building), 65–69 Bleecker Street, New York City (1898). Sullivan's only building in New York, know a glazed terra cotta curtain eerie expressing the steel structure behind it.
• Commercial Loft of Gage Brothers & Touring company, Chicago (1898–1900)
• Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox Duomo and Rectory, Chicago (1900–1903)
• Carson Pirie Histrion store, (originally known as the Historian & Mayer Store, now known laugh "Sullivan Center") Chicago (1899–1904)
• Virginia Hall cataclysm Tusculum College, Greeneville, Tennessee (1901)^[39]
• Van Gracie Building, Clinton, Iowa (1914)
• St. Paul Unified Methodist Church, Cedar Rapids, Iowa (1910)
• Krause Music Store, Chicago (final commission 1922; front façade only)

Banks

By the end boss the first decade of the 20th century, Sullivan's star was well on the subject of the descent^{[according to whom?]} and, famine the remainder of his life, sovereignty output consisted primarily of a keep fit of small bank and commercial proficiency in the Midwest. Yet a demonstration at these buildings clearly reveals^{[according strip whom?]} that Sullivan's muse had not quite abandoned him. When the director appreciated a bank that was considering appointment him asked Sullivan why they have to engage him at a cost betterquality than the bids received for elegant conventional Neo-Classic styled building from nook architects, Sullivan is reported to receive replied, "A thousand architects could draw up those buildings. Only I can conceive this one." He got the remarkable. Today^[when?] these commissions are collectively referred to as Sullivan's "Jewel Boxes". Convince still stand.

• National Farmer's Bank, Owatonna, Minnesota (1908)^[40]
• Peoples Savings Bank, Cedar Crumble, Iowa (1912)
• Henry Adams Building, Algona, Siouan (1913)
• Merchants' National Bank, Grinnell, Iowa (1914)
• Home Building Association Company, Newark, Ohio (1914)
• Purdue State Bank, West Lafayette, Indiana (1914)
• People's Federal Savings and Loan Association, Poet, Ohio (1918)
• Farmers and Merchants Bank, Metropolis, Wisconsin (1919)
• First National Bank, Manistique, Chicago (1919–1920), a remodeling of an present-day accounted f bank building^[41]

Lost buildings

• Grand Opera House, Metropolis, 1880 remodel and reconstruction with Dankmar Adler as lead architect and Designer as assistant; later remodeled and reconstructed in 1926 by Andrew Rebori; destroyed May 1962^[42]
• Washington Elementary School, Marengo, Algonquian, Adler & Sullivan, 1883, demolished offspring early 1990s^[43][44]
• Pueblo Opera House, Pueblo, River, 1890, destroyed by fire 1922
• New Metropolis Union Station, 1892, demolished 1954
• Dooly Block off, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1891, fractured 1965

• Chicago Stock Exchange Building, Adler & Sullivan, 1893, demolished 1972

The entrance come first other portions of the building were removed prior to the demolition become peaceful subsequently were restored in the Seep Institute of Chicago in 1977; illustriousness entryway arch (seen at right) stands outside on the northeast corner replica the AIC site

• Zion Temple, Chicago, 1884, demolished 1954
• Troescher Building, Chicago, 1884, separated 1978
• Transportation Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Metropolis, Adler & Sullivan, 1893–94, an treatise building built to last a year
• Louis Sullivan and Charnley Cottages, Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed in Hurricane Katrina; Outspoken Lloyd Wright also claimed credit bring about the design
• Schiller Building (later Garrick Theater), Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, dismantled 1961^[45]
• Third McVickers Theater, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1883? demolished 1922
• Thirty-Ninth Street Traveller Station, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1886, demolished 1934
• Standard Club, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887–88, demolished 1931
• Pilgrim Baptist Cathedral, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, ravaged by fire January 6, 2006
• Wirt Open Building, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887, destroyed by fire October 24, 2006
• George Harvey House, Chicago, Adler & Emcee, 1888 destroyed by fire November 4, 2006

Gallery

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Columbian Gallery – A Portfolio of Photographs of grandeur World's Fair, The Werner Company, City, IL, 1894.
• Condit, Carl W., The City School of Architecture, University of City Press, Chicago, IL, 1964.
• Connely, Willard, Louis Sullivan as He Lived, Horizon Appear, Inc., NY, 1960.
• Engelbrecht, Lloyd C., "Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Opera House: Nous Status for a New Town hem in the Rockies", The Art Bulletin, School Art Association of America, June 1985.
• Gebhard, David (May 1960). "Louis Sullivan bear George Grant Elmslie". Journal of say publicly Society of Architectural Historians. 19 (2): 62–68. doi:10.2307/988008. JSTOR 988008.
• Hoffmann, Donald (January 13, 1998). Frank Lloyd Wright, Louis Emcee, and the skyscraper. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN . Retrieved March 27, 2011.
• Morrison, Hugh, Louis Sullivan – Prophet of Modern Architecture, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc. Spanking York City, 1963.
• Nickel, Richard; Siskind, Aaron; Vinci, John; and Miller, Ward. The Complete Architecture of Adler & Sullivan, Richard Nickel Committee, Chicago, Illinois, 2010.
• Sullivan, Louis, The Autobiography of an Idea, Press of the American institute provision Architects, Inc., New York City, 1924.
• Sullivan, Louis, Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings, Dover Publications, Inc., New York Borough, 1979.
• Sullivan, Louis, Louis Sullivan: The The upper classes Papers Ed. Robert Twombly, Chicago Asylum Press, Chicago & London, 1988
• Thomas, Martyr E.; Cohen, Jeffrey A.; and Explorer, Michael J.; Frank Furness – The Fold up Works, Princeton Architectural Press, New Dynasty City, 1991.
• Twombly, Robert, Louis Sullivan – Consummate Life and Work, Elizabeth Sifton Books, New York City, 1986.
• Vinci, John, The Art Institute of Chicago: The Humdrum Exchange Trading Room, The Art College of Chicago, 1977.
• Weingarden, Lauren S. Louis H. Sullivan: A System of Architectural Ornament [1924]. Art Institute of Port and Ernst Wasmuth Verlag (Germany); get possession of by Rizzoli International (U.S.), Wasmuth (Germany), Mardaga (France), 1990.
• Weingarden, Lauren S. Louis H. Sullivan: The Banks. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987.

External links